Myth buster #2: Cracking the code for independent reading!
Kathy Cologon, Macquarie University
In this series of blog posts I am addressing six common misconceptions in order to support families and teachers in providing opportunities for people with Down syndrome to learn to read. It is my hope that, by drawing together research on reading development in people with Down syndrome more people will have the opportunity to become readers.
Reading can be a source not only of participation, choice and opportunity, but also of personal and shared enjoyment and engagement through reading for pleasure. However, if a person is not given the opportunity to learn to read then this wonderful world of reading is not available. The only way to find out how much someone can learn is to teach and keep on teaching!
While I am writing this series of blog posts to parents and teachers, I am aware that many people who have Down syndrome may also be reading this – if you are I hope you find this interesting. You, like me, have the right to learn to read and I hope that reading is a source of as much pleasure to you as it is to me!
There are a number of myths that may result in inappropriately low expectations and unnecessarily limited learning opportunities.
In this series of blog posts I address six of these myths concerning (1) receptive and expressive language (what we say and what we understand), (2) phonological awareness and phonic decoding (awareness of sounds and applying these to reading), (3) functional reading or reading for pleasure and learning, (4) ‘reading readiness’ or (non)linear development, (5) optimal learning age and, (6) reading comprehension. These blog posts draw on a recent paper published in the Australian Journal of Teacher Education. I have included a link to the full paper at the end of the blog post for those who are interested in reading more on these topics. I would like to express my thanks to the editor of the journal for permission to use the paper in this series of blog posts. Many thanks also to all of the people with Down syndrome, families and teachers who have allowed me to share in their journeys and from whom I have learnt so much.
In this series of blog posts I address six of these myths concerning (1) receptive and expressive language (what we say and what we understand), (2) phonological awareness and phonic decoding (awareness of sounds and applying these to reading), (3) functional reading or reading for pleasure and learning, (4) ‘reading readiness’ or (non)linear development, (5) optimal learning age and, (6) reading comprehension. These blog posts draw on a recent paper published in the Australian Journal of Teacher Education. I have included a link to the full paper at the end of the blog post for those who are interested in reading more on these topics. I would like to express my thanks to the editor of the journal for permission to use the paper in this series of blog posts. Many thanks also to all of the people with Down syndrome, families and teachers who have allowed me to share in their journeys and from whom I have learnt so much.
The first blog post addressed receptive and expressive language (what we say and what we understand). In this blog post we move on to phonological awareness and phonic decoding (awareness of sounds and applying these to reading).
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Phonological Awareness and Phonic Decoding Skills
Myth #2: People with Down syndrome cannot develop phonological awareness and phonic decoding skills.
Reality: As demonstrated through a growing body of research, people with Down syndrome can and do develop phonological awareness and phonic decoding skills.
While there has been a great deal of debate about a ‘phonics’ versus a ‘whole language’ approach to teaching reading, both in relation to teaching reading in general, as well as in regards to teaching reading to people with Down syndrome, childhood phonological awareness has been found to be the best single predictor of later reading success.
Phonological awareness can be defined as an individual’s ability to consciously focus on the sound structure of language. For example, the ability to identify the syllables in a spoken word.
Phonics, which builds on phonological awareness, is the process of actively teaching letter-sound relationships and how they are used to make up words in reading and spelling. This is important for developing the ability to ‘crack the code’, so to speak, and decode text. Written words involve using standardised or commonly agreed ways of interpreting squiggly lines (letters) and connecting these with sounds (phonemes), so learning to decode these to make meaning is complex, but essential, for reading.
Given the considerable evidence of the role of phonological awareness in reading development, the 2005 National Inquiry into the Teaching of Literacy in Australia, as well as other large evidence-based reviews in various countries including the UK and the USA have found that incorporating instruction focussed on supporting the development of phonological awareness and phonic decoding skills – within an experiential and holistic approach to literacy – is essential for reading development. In fact, developing phonic decoding skills is thought to enable learners to become independent readers as they develop the ability to self-teach new words.
However, in contrast to these recommendations, most people with Down syndrome receive reading instruction focussed mainly or solely on sight-word approaches. Research has provided evidence to tell us that many people with Down syndrome have a relative strength in visual learning, including sight-word learning. Although a strength in visual and sight-word learning is a positive finding (and word recognition is one important element of reading), there is a problem if we respond to this positive finding by limiting learning opportunities.
A capacity for sight-word learning does not mean that a person cannot learn other aspects of reading. Sight-word learning on its own is insufficient for reading development and teaching with this approach alone is contrary to current evidence-based practices in literacy instruction in Australia and elsewhere. On its own, sight-word learning only enables limited reading development. Additionally, while many do, some people do not respond well to a sight-word approach.
When a person learns words by sight, she or he learns to recognise and recall words as visual wholes. This approach relies on a rote learning process and does not include teaching someone to figure out how to read an unfamiliar word that she or he has not been explicitly taught (which is the purpose of phonic decoding). A person can get very good at reading the words that she or he has been taught, but unless that person generalises and ‘cracks the code’ or unlocks the alphabetic principle without instruction, a sight-word approach leaves the person only able to read the words that someone has chosen to teach her/him. This results in limited reading development.
The claim by some researchers in the 1990s that people with Down syndrome do not need to develop phonological awareness in order to learn to read has been found to be false. While people with Down syndrome may have lower scores on measures of phonological awareness, phonological awareness is nonetheless present and associated with reading development in people with Down syndrome.
Another argument against teaching phonological awareness and phonic decoding skills is that it is common for people with Down syndrome to have limited auditory short-term memory spans (short-term memory for the things we hear), and phonic decoding utilises auditory short-term memory. However, research demonstrates that even people who do not have a measurable auditory short-term memory span (so a span of less than 1 when tested – although it should be noted that testing generally requires a spoken response) can develop phonological awareness and phonic decoding skills. Research has also found that not only is the development of phonological awareness and phonic decoding skills possible with a limited auditory short-term memory span, but that reading development may actually improve auditory short-term memory in people with Down syndrome.
When given the opportunity to learn, people with Down syndrome can develop phonological awareness and phonic decoding skills and can demonstrate advanced reading development. Research also shows that developing phonological awareness and phonic decoding skills may result in clearer speech.
It is important that reading instruction targeting phonological and phonemic awareness and phonic decoding skills pairs auditory and visual information to support learning. It is also important to avoid overloading auditory short-term memory. Linking auditory and visual information enables a learner to use visual strengths to assist with reducing the risk of overloading auditory memory.
A focus on syllables and word families, as well as letter-sound relationships and awareness of sounds in the environment, may support development of phonological and phonemic awareness and phonic decoding skills.
It is important to avoid isolated and meaningless activities, as these will not support holistic literacy development. When focusing on phonological and phonemic awareness and phonic decoding skills, it is essential to link words to meaning. Building knowledge of blends within words and using words within sentences is helpful.
As well as engaging in a meaningful way, ensure learning experiences are fun and playful (avoid drills and build on interests to engage). Support phonological awareness development gradually through games. For example: clapping, jumping and hopping syllables (whatever is fun and engaging that can be connected with syllables); games drawing awareness to and identifying environmental sounds; and nonsense rhyming (in the vein of Dr Seuss).
Provide repetition in a fun and engaging way: Building on interests and providing variety can make learning and repetition a positive experience. Remember learning to read is part of living life so it should be fun!
Failure to provide holistic opportunities for learning to read may place unnecessary, but serious, limitations on reading outcomes, potentially limiting children to an adult-determined ‘functional’ or sight-word vocabulary (which will be discussed further in the next blog post in this series). On the other hand, providing learning opportunities that support the development of phonological awareness and phonic decoding skills can lead to very positive outcomes.
Cologon, K. (2013). Debunking myths: Reading development in children with Down syndrome. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 38(3), 130-151.
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